Importance Of Chemistry Essay

Our whole universe is comprised of issue which is continually changing structures and developing into different types of vitality. We use science from the earliest starting point of the day till its end, the toothpaste we use to brush our teeth is made of abrasives, fluoride, and cleansers. These regular family unit things contain batteries, which make them synthetically reliant. The refinement our water by procedure of chlorination, dental tidiness from toothpaste, sanitization, the control and the fix of infection are every one of the a piece of day by day living found and made by science. These disclosures make up a significant part for the insurance of our wellbeing and cleanliness and are essential for the future presence of humankind. Science is the part of science that manages the recognizable proof of the substances of which matter is created, of their properties and the manners by which they connect, join, and change. The utilization of these procedures to shape new substanc es, understanding the significance of science is basic to know the significance of science in regular daily existence. Everything on earth is comprised of synthetic compounds you, your food, and the items you use in life, for example, cleansers, scents and so on all are comprised of synthetic compounds. An existence without synthetic substances is unthinkable. Various changes that you watch are the consequence of substance responses like the downpour, the adjustment in the shade of leaves, cleaning of a specific material in your home, all include synthetic compounds. You have to comprehend certain compound responses. When does your bundle food terminate? What disinfectants and anti-agents you should use to keep your home clean and sound, etc. A visitor (Jonathan Liu) expressed â€Å"I never realized that science is applied to such huge numbers of things in regular day to day existence! I realized that there would be a great deal of math included and recently imagined that we would examine science more inside and out. Presently that I’ve read this, I am progressively keen on considering science at school†. Science is significant in light of the fact that it helps in investigating things which are obscure to humanity. Science is significant in light of the fact that it c larifies the future conduct of plants and creatures and we all utilization synthetic compounds straightforwardly or by implication in our day by day lives. We are utilizing science when we cook, when we wash, when we eat, when we prepare, when we play, when we think, as aâ matter of reality, we generally use science. Expanding the information in science is significant on the off chance that we need to improve our way of life on the day by day. Science is likewise significant for nature. At the point when you know about the hurting impacts of the gases like carbon dioxide and methane because of the nursery impact, you can without much of a stretch cut out answers for the decrease of consequences for the earth. On the off chance that you go with a base information on the significance utilization of science you can help in sparing the earth to an enormous degree. In spite of the fact that science is thought as convoluted and an exhausting science subject, science is mindful in clarifying the world you live in, aside from clarifying cooking, cleaning, medication and condition issues; science is fundamentally the investigation of everything. Understanding the fundamental science is basic for all, yet having some expertise in science, making a vocation out of the subject is additionally intriguing. A lot of science related lucrative occupations are accessible today. All the clinical understudies, physicists, geologists, nutritio nists study science. That the significance of science will build step by step and it is basic to comprehend the essential science to appropriately direct the exercises of the day by day life.

My Philosophy of Teaching :: Philosophy of Education

Theory of Education Having moved on from a state funded educational system, I feel my encounters and conclusions are direct, yet they are something I ought to consistently attempt to consider when contemplating or managing my own understudies. As each understudy has, I have had incredible instructors just as horrible ones; a portion of those educators everybody adored or abhorred, and other got differed feelings about themselves from their understudies. The understudy educator relationship is something that is unavoidable, as it ought to be. The explanation I am seeking after instructing as my calling is on the grounds that I comprehend that kids need somebody in their lives to have any kind of effect, and on the off chance that I could be that somebody for just my very own bunch understudies, I will have succeeded. I see instructing as being more than essentially telling a youngster the best way to peruse as significant as that may be instructing is likewise about demonstrating a kid the significance of self. Without confidence, self-control and discretion, there would not be numerous individuals who could make it effectively in today’s world. Furthermore, if I’m effective in showing kids how to peruse, just as something significant about themselves, I will have helped a few children get by as grown-ups. I don’t care anything about being the educator that everybody believes is so cool and cherishes, nor would I like to be the one that everybody despises. What I would like to be is an educator that is regarded by my understudies since I have been reasonable and have allowed every one of them to pass and succeed. I need my understudies to confide in me. I need them to realize that I am not great and understand that none of them are, however I do trust that they understand that I do anticipate from them what I would anticipate from my self in the event that I were one of my own understudies. Information on subject is next on my rundown of significance. I realize how significant it is for my self to be educated about the subject I am instructing; however regardless of the amount I realize my understudies will just realize what I educate to them effectively.

The Case of the Considerate Robbers

The Case of the Considerate Robbers It was the dead of winter in the smoggy capital city of Chile, encircled by the Andes mountains’ snow-capped peaks on one side and the vast Pacific Ocean on the other. Tucked into little apartments and host families and plagued nightly by the severe lack of central heating, about thirty MIT students tried to better their Spanish, interned at local companies, and wondered why they chose to go to the Southern Hemisphere during their summer. Look at all that smog yum! They soon settled into the monotonous routine of a 9 to 6 (or sometimes 8 to 7) work schedule, almost missing the fast pace of studies. Students also grew accustomed to the kisses on the right cheek when greeting and leaving a room and learned to like completos italianos (hot dogs with tomato, mayonnaise, and avocado) and the traditional empanadas, stuffed with meat, egg, and a singular olive. Common Chilean idioms, like “Qué fome” and “ ¿Cachai?”, slang that Spanish speakers anywhere else in the world would fail to understand, found their way into speech. On a particularly warm weekend, about twenty of the students booked a tour to the nearby gorge Cajón del Maipo, a pristine, tourist-filled reservoir that promised a breathtaking view of the Andes and a brief respite from the gray smoke spewing from Santiago’s factories. They trekked down the icy path into a reservoir filled with glassy aquamarine water, ran up the snow covered slopes with glee as if they had not just su rvived a brutal Boston winter, and took a plethora of group pictures and selfies. Fingers frostbitten and stomachs starving, the students were herded back into the van and driven to a peaceful, secluded riverside to enjoy a nice picnic of wine and a surprisingly delicious combination of cream cheese, soy sauce, sesame seeds, and pico de gallo on bread. After lounging around for a while, they piled back into the car but quickly realized something was amiss. “Has anyone seen my jacket?” Someone called from the back. “I’m missing my DSLR camera!” called another. The claims began to roll in. In total, four name brand jackets, about $100 in cash, an iPhone, a set of keys tagged with the apartment address, and a DSLR camera were gone. It was an incredibly smooth and strangely considerate operation. Passports, IDs, and backpacks were on the whole untouched, but the pockets of jackets and purses were thoroughly searched. There was no sign of entry on windows or doors, although the tour guides insisted that they had definitely secured the van before retreating to the picnic. All in all, it was a tragic end to a magical day, but a car karaoke session helped ease the worries. There was nothing much we could do, except fill out a routine police report and speculate about the potential involvement of the tour guides. So unfortunately, case not closed. Other than my lost jacket, exploring the city and working with the people there have gone smoothly and wonderfully. I got my first taste of working on code and projects that could be used in production at a startup focused on improving communication between local governments and their constituents, a worthy cause in today’s political climate. I met MIT people I might never have bumped into otherwise and wandered into churro cafes and circus conventions, all on MISTI’s dime. In case you dont know what MISTI is, the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives funds students’ internships and research positions abroad by giving them a stipend for accommodations, food, and a bit of travel! They have incredibly dedicated, industrious program managers, who fundraise, connect with sponsors, and place students in over 25 countries all over the world. Most companies and labs would love to have an MIT intern working with them, and all the people I’ve met on my trip have been so welcoming and eager to both teach me and learn from me. People are often surprised that students as young as us are already travelling the world and interning, and honestly, when I stop to think about it, Im pretty amazed to be given these opportunities as well. Its just one of the many things that make me so grateful for the trust and confidence MIT puts in our abilities to affect change, not only in our own communities, but also all over the world. Up next, adventures in Lima , so stay tuned! A smile of pure fear Post Tagged #Santiago

Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. and Ronald Reagan Servant...

Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Ronald Reagan: Servant Leaders â€Å"If we love our country, we should also love our countrymen.† – Ronald Reagan â€Å"The first question which the priest and the Levite asked was: ‘If I stop to help this man, what will happen to me?† But, the Good Samaritan reversed the question: ‘If I do not stop to help this man, what will happen to him?† – Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Both men were correct in these statements and both had strong convictions to do the right thing. President Ronald Regan and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. were each known for their ability to use their words to express their feelings and to serve those who depended on them in a time when strong leadership was not only expected, but also†¦show more content†¦He met his second wife, Nancy Davis, in 1950 and married her on March 4, 1952. It was his time spent in Hollywood that Reagan’s political views moved from liberal to c onservative, which led to his election as Governor of the State of California in 1966. He later won the United States Presidential nomination in 1980 (Ronald Reagan, The White House, n.d.). Martin Luther King, Jr., was born in Atlanta, Georgia on January 15, 1929 as the middle child of Michael King Sr. and Alberta Williams King. He, like Reagan, was born in a rural area and grew up in a faith-filled family with a legacy of Baptist ministers. In 1944, at the age of fifteen, King entered Morehouse College in Atlanta. As a pastor’s son, Martin rejected the idea of going into ministry until he took a Bible class in his junior year, which renewed his faith and give him a vision for a life in ministry. He earned a degree in sociology in 1948 and then attended the Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania. He met Coretta Scott while working on his doctorate and married her in 1953. He became the pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama in 1954 and o btained his Ph.D. in 1955 at the age of twenty-five (Martin Luther King, Jr., 2014, April 20). Growing Popularity Ronald Regan’s popularity grew while he was theShow MoreRelatedethical decision making16006 Words   |  65 PagesCHAPTER 11 Ethics and Health Pat Kurtz and Ronald L. Burr Authors Go Here Authors Go Here Authors Go Here Visit http://nursing.jbpub.com/communityhealth for Visit http://nursing.jbpub.com/communityhealth interactive exercises, review questions, WebLinks for interactive exercises, review questions, and more. Web links, and more.  © Jones and Bartlett Publishers, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. 1786X_CH11_248_269.pdf 248 12/30/08 10:30:24 AM REFLECTIONS It has becomeRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesTwentieth-Century World Bonnie G. Smith 83 4 The Gendering of Human Rights in the International Systems of Law in the Twentieth Century †¢ Jean H. Quataert 116 5 The Impact of the Two World Wars in a Century of Violence †¢ John H. Morrow Jr. 161 6 Locating the United States in Twentieth-Century World History †¢ Carl J. Guarneri 213 7 The Technopolitics of Cold War: Toward a Transregional Perspective †¢ Gabrielle Hecht and Paul N. Edwards 271 8 A Century of EnvironmentalRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesSelf-Assessment Library How Good Am I at Building and Leading a Team? 308 glOBalization! Group Cohesiveness across Cultures 314 An Ethical Choice Using Global Virtual Teams as an Environmental Choice 315 Myth or Science? â€Å"Teams Work Best Under Angry Leaders† 320 Self-Assessment Library What Is My Team Efficacy? 322 Point/Counterpoint We Can Learn Much About Work Teams from Studying Sports Teams 326 Questions for Review 327 Experiential Exercise Fixed versus Variable Flight Crews 327 Ethical DilemmaRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesWRITTEN PRESENTATIONS 591 Supplement A SKILL LEARNING 592 Making Oral and Written Presentations 592 Essential Elements of Effective Presentations 593 SKILL PRACTICE 609 Exercises for Making Effective Oral and Written Presentations Speaking as a Leader 609 Quality Circles at Battle Creek Foods 610 609 Supplement B CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS 619 SKILL LEARNING 620 Planning and Conducting Interviews 620 Specific Types of Organizational Interviews 629 SKILL PRACTICE 634 Exercises for Conducting

History And Theory Freud And Rogers - 1125 Words

HISTORY AND THEORY – Freud and Rogers Sigmund Freud and Carl Rogers are two extremely renowned individuals who have greatly contributed to the history of psychology. Their contributions are the foundation for the tools, techniques, and methodologies used by psychologist today. Although, each psychologist is from different times and developed different methods, they shared a passion for the workings of the human mind. As a result, their drive and foundation has motivated and prompted new theories and research for the future. This paper will provide a summary of two articles highlighting the processes contemporary psychologists use to develop the theories of Freud and Rogers. It also explains their views of human nature and worldviews as†¦show more content†¦The second article was entitled Depression As A Maladaptive Process: Discussion Of The Condition According To The Humanistic And Existential Approach (Varvatsoulias, 2015). This article reviewed the humanistic approach to depression and also compared the exis tential approach to depression. It explained when using the humanistic approach with individuals who are depressed, the person is on a quest for self-identity and this can cause the release of some anxieties (Varvatsoulias, 2015). According to Varvatsoulias (2015), the author explained humanistic psychology as â€Å"becoming depressive is one’s condition of worth†. Although humanistic psychology admits in conditions of worth, there are inhibitions sustained by the imposition of others upon the individual which does not make any difference in the acquisition of the condition itself†. Freud and Rogers’ Nature and Worldwide Views Freud’s view of human nature from a psychoanalytical stand point was he believed that the contents of an individual’s matters consciousness were determined by psychological, individual and biological motivations Freud, S. (2001).. His worldviews presented interpretations of who the individual was, where they came from, and what their destiny was. On the other hand, Rogers believed the psychoanalytical view humans as never free from primitive passions, childhood fixations, and only the product of powerful biological drives was not flexible enough. Rogers’s foundation ofShow MoreRelatedFreuds and Rogers Theories of Personality Psychotherapy1004 Words   |  4 PagesFreuds and Rogers Theories Personality Psychotherapy A comparison of Freud and Rogers theories of personality and psychotherapy Personality is the description of an individual through how the individual demonstrates his or her emotions and building relationship and their behavioral patterns. Two neurologists developed two theories to explain the formation of personalities. They were neurologist Sigmund Freud and psychologist Carl Rogers. 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This paper will compare and contrast the differences between the great theories of the psychodynamic theory from Sigmund Freud and the humanistic theory from Carl Rogers. These two theorists have different views of how personality is developed, with both theorists influencing the world of psychological personality to this day. DisputesRead MoreThe Theories Of Personality Theories1124 Words   |  5 Pagesimportant theories regarding personality. Some of these theories are still relevant to our world today. These theories have helped form humans and they have also changed the way we think and the way we do things. There are many different forms of personality theories that have shaped the world for us: Biological, Behavioral, Psychodynamic, Humanist, Trait, etc. Biological theories are based on genetics and they believe that genetics are responsible for personality. Behavioral theories suggest thatRead MoreComparing Psychodynamic Psychotherapy and Person-Centered Psychology1735 Words   |  7 Pagesdeveloped by Sigmund Freud during the Victorian Era in Vienna, Austria. Sigmund Freud’s psychological works set the base for the profession of psychology as well as the practice of modern psychotherapy. Freud believed human behavior was motivated by â€Å"intrapsychic conflict† stemming from the three areas of the subconscious: id, ego, and superego (Murdock, 2009). Freud’s psychoanalytic approach to therapy had more of a negative view of human nature that Carl Rogers’ view. Freud thought human dysfunctionRead MoreSocial And Cultural Context Of Psychology818 Words   |  4 PagesKatja Gavrilina Define the term Psychology and discuss its history in light of social and cultural context, highlighting the significance of different perspectives in Psychology. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of mental processes and human behaviour. 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Person-centered therapy was a non-directive approach where counselors guided their clients towards self-actualization in hopes of attaining fulfillment. Rogers (1979) had an optimistic view of the client’s ability to achieve fulfillment under theRead MoreCompare and Contrast Psychoanalytic and Person-Centered Therapies2470 Words   |  10 Pageswith Carl Roger’s Client-centered theory and Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory. The focus of the comparisons will fall into the three main topic areas: that of optimal personality development, that of the nature of problem formation, and that of the process of learning and change. The two theorists differ in approach in that Psychoanalytic theory is basically deterministic while Person-Centered therapy is rooted in humanistic and existential philosophies. Freud concurred that behavior was determined

Theory of Communication Free Essays

Case Study Theory of Communication Introduction to Communication Good communication and interpersonal skills are vital for success in business. The ability to communicate clearly and persuasively is often seen as the key characteristic of the effective manager or administrator. High level communication skills are also essential in specialised functions, such as marketing, human resource management, public relations and secretarial. We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of Communication or any similar topic only for you Order Now Communication is the means by which individual employees convey their wants, ideas and feelings to others,( not only managers or specialists). Process of Communication Context Medium/Channel Message Feedback Noise Communication can be defined as the process by which, ideas, information, opinions, attitude, and feeling are conveyed from one person to another. The communicator or sender is the person who initiates the conversation by sending a message. The receiver is the person who receives the messages and completes the communication by responding to it. Most communication is two way and has to have both a sender and receiver, either face to face or by other means such as telephone, letters, e-mails etc. Body language also plays a big part in communication. Sender Encoding Receiver Decoding Communication codes * Written language * Spoken language * Dress * Body language * Pictures, photographs and graphic illustrations. * Sign language, Braille. * Numbers * Computer language Communication Medium The medium is the means used to transmit the message. Media can be categorised into five headings; written, oral, visual, electronic and mass. Written media can provide a written record, can relay complex information, can be carefully thought out and mistakes can be edited. It takes time to produce and is more impersonal than speech. * Letter * Report * Memo * Press Release * Company magazine Advertising leaflet Oral media is more direct and personal, feedback is immediate. Oral media can be supported by body language. But there may be no record of what is said and if you say something you don’t mean you cannot take it back. * Conversation face to face or telephone * Interview * Meeting * Presentation * Oral briefing Visual media can have an immediate im pact, it can support verbal presentations. * Nonverbal * Diagrams * Charts * Photographs * Models Electronic media provides fast communication over long distance, can carry both verbal and visual information. * Video * Telephone * E-mail * Internet Mass media is an important source of information; it can reach a large number of people and can be used for advertising. * Television * Radio * Press * Film Channels of Communication The channel is the air that carries sound waves between speaker and listener such as: * Television channels * Radio * Postal system * Computer networks * Courier services * Telephone Barriers to Communication Effective communication is difficult and mistakes are often made. We see this in everyday life, we complain when someone doesn’t respond to our messages in the way we expect, they do not understand what we really meant to say. In business, difficulties with communication can cause disruption. Good business opportunities can be lost or disastrous management decisions made. A serious breakdown in communication can put the very future of a company at risk. Communication errors can never be completely eliminated. Nevertheless, we are likely to be more successful communicators if we are aware of the factors that cause communication to fail. Some obstacles stand in the way of communication and some of these can be avoided or overcome. Physical Barriers Among these barriers are poor hearing or eyesight, illness, tiredness, or stress. Other barriers can be, distractions such as an office that is too warm or too cold, uncomfortable seating, poor telephone connection or the noise of traffic heard from outside. If a person has a medical problem this may be sorted by a visit to a doctor. If the office is too hot or too cold the thermostat may be altered and maybe closing the window would help to block out the noise. Language Barriers To convey a message correctly it should be written clearly in a language that the receiver will understand. Mistakes in spelling can harm communication. Sometimes local jargon can disrupt good communication; it may be acceptable in a specialised trade or profession. Slang or local accents may be difficult for outsiders to understand. Nonverbal Barriers Facial expression, posture and eye movement all reveal our feelings and attitudes to the receiver. When there is conflict between a verbal and non verbal signal, it is the nonverbal signal that tends to be believed. A person may say that they are outgoing and confident but this might be contradicted by nervous body language. Poor Listening Good listening is often the most important part of communication. Listening give us a better understanding of the other persons point of view, maintains friendships and helps business collaboration. When not listening properly, we often miss an important point in a conversation. Problems with Perception Perception is how we make sense of ourselves and the world around us. We perceive the world through the senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. We also have some physiological based perceptions such as sensation of pain, heat, cold etc. We have mental perceptions such as thoughts, daydreams and fantasies. The brain registers these different stimuli and organises them into shapes and patterns that we can understand. Mistakes can arise if we think other people perceive things the same way that we do ourselves. Often they don’t and this is a common cause of communication failure. Attitudinal Barriers Stereotyping, prejudice and unwanted attribution are among the attitudinal barriers that can do the most damage to our ability to our ability to relate effectively to others. * Stereotyping: We stereotype other people when we assume they will behave in a certain way just because of their appearance, role or a particular social group. We may be surprised to find that conservatively dressed people have radical views or that the big person wearing a studded jacket and driving a Harley Davidson turns out to be as gentle as a lamb. Judging by appearance gives an incomplete and often distorted picture of what a person is really like. * Prejudice: Prejudice is an attitude of hostility based on faulty generalisations, such as stereotypes. It may be directed at individuals or groups. Prejudice can be damaging to communications if a person believes that another person is inferior, subversive, threatening, not fully part of the community and so on. If we consider another person less than ourselves, we are unlikely to value what they have to say. Prejudice is often a part of ignorance but maybe better education will improve this. * Attribution:Even when we avoid stereotyping, we still make the mistake of judging people on flimsy evidence. We should not listen to what other people say, this can sometimes be misleading. Having an accurate picture of people is vital for effective communication, but it is something that can only be built up slowly through time, insight and regular contact. The Principles of Effective Communication As a Communicator 1. Think carefully about your objectives before communicating. What do you want to achieve? Do you want to inform, persuade, advise or consult the receiver? What kind of response do you hope to get? When you have answered questions like these then you can think about the content of the message and how you define it. 2. Put yourself in the communicator’s shoes. The receiver’s perception may not be the same as yours. They may think differently or have different opinions. You may need to communicate with tact and sensitivity. 3. Choose the right medium or combination of media. Difficulties can arise if the wrong medium is used. If you try to describe a complicated process by speech alone the audience may not understand it. A combination of words and graphics may work better. 4. Organise your ideas and express them carefully. Take time to structure your ideas in a logical sequence. When choosing your words, take into consideration the receivers understanding and linguistic ability. Try to use words that the receiver will understand. Use language suitable to the communication taking place, informal language that may be used on the shop floor may not be suitable or appropriate for a business meeting. 5. Consider the context, breakdowns in communication often occur because the receiver is given information at the wrong time or place. Even important messages can be forgotten if the receiver is busy or preoccupied with something else. 6. Check for feedback, make sure your message has been received and understood. When speaking face to face look for signs of puzzlement in your listeners, be prepared to explain if necessary. Although the main responsibility for communicating a message rests with the sender, the receiver also has to listen and make sure they understand and relay the message to the right person. As a Receiver 1. Give the message your full attention. Many messages are misunderstood because the receiver is not concentrating, they are daydreaming, or there are too many distractions. 2. Interpret the message correctly. This requires effort and proper listening, if you are unsure of what is said; ask for it to be repeated. Check the meaning of unfamiliar words or references. In spoken communication listen actively and with empathy. Be alert for nuances that may subtly alter the meaning of the message. 3. Keep an open mind, you should not allow dislike of the communicator, or disagreement with their beliefs to influence your judgement. Make an objective assessment of the message no matter what your relationship with the sender. 4. Record information you are likely to forget. You should write down any information you are likely to forget such as, telephone numbers, names, dates etc. The information should be recorded properly in a secure place, not on a scrap of paper that can get lost among other papers on a busy desk. 5. Respond appropriately to the communicator by providing feedback, following up enquiries or whatever action is necessary. How to cite Theory of Communication, Essay examples

Theory of Communication Free Essays

Case Study Theory of Communication Introduction to Communication Good communication and interpersonal skills are vital for success in business. The ability to communicate clearly and persuasively is often seen as the key characteristic of the effective manager or administrator. High level communication skills are also essential in specialised functions, such as marketing, human resource management, public relations and secretarial. We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of Communication or any similar topic only for you Order Now Communication is the means by which individual employees convey their wants, ideas and feelings to others,( not only managers or specialists). Process of Communication Context Medium/Channel Message Feedback Noise Communication can be defined as the process by which, ideas, information, opinions, attitude, and feeling are conveyed from one person to another. The communicator or sender is the person who initiates the conversation by sending a message. The receiver is the person who receives the messages and completes the communication by responding to it. Most communication is two way and has to have both a sender and receiver, either face to face or by other means such as telephone, letters, e-mails etc. Body language also plays a big part in communication. Sender Encoding Receiver Decoding Communication codes * Written language * Spoken language * Dress * Body language * Pictures, photographs and graphic illustrations. * Sign language, Braille. * Numbers * Computer language Communication Medium The medium is the means used to transmit the message. Media can be categorised into five headings; written, oral, visual, electronic and mass. Written media can provide a written record, can relay complex information, can be carefully thought out and mistakes can be edited. It takes time to produce and is more impersonal than speech. * Letter * Report * Memo * Press Release * Company magazine Advertising leaflet Oral media is more direct and personal, feedback is immediate. Oral media can be supported by body language. But there may be no record of what is said and if you say something you don’t mean you cannot take it back. * Conversation face to face or telephone * Interview * Meeting * Presentation * Oral briefing Visual media can have an immediate im pact, it can support verbal presentations. * Nonverbal * Diagrams * Charts * Photographs * Models Electronic media provides fast communication over long distance, can carry both verbal and visual information. * Video * Telephone * E-mail * Internet Mass media is an important source of information; it can reach a large number of people and can be used for advertising. * Television * Radio * Press * Film Channels of Communication The channel is the air that carries sound waves between speaker and listener such as: * Television channels * Radio * Postal system * Computer networks * Courier services * Telephone Barriers to Communication Effective communication is difficult and mistakes are often made. We see this in everyday life, we complain when someone doesn’t respond to our messages in the way we expect, they do not understand what we really meant to say. In business, difficulties with communication can cause disruption. Good business opportunities can be lost or disastrous management decisions made. A serious breakdown in communication can put the very future of a company at risk. Communication errors can never be completely eliminated. Nevertheless, we are likely to be more successful communicators if we are aware of the factors that cause communication to fail. Some obstacles stand in the way of communication and some of these can be avoided or overcome. Physical Barriers Among these barriers are poor hearing or eyesight, illness, tiredness, or stress. Other barriers can be, distractions such as an office that is too warm or too cold, uncomfortable seating, poor telephone connection or the noise of traffic heard from outside. If a person has a medical problem this may be sorted by a visit to a doctor. If the office is too hot or too cold the thermostat may be altered and maybe closing the window would help to block out the noise. Language Barriers To convey a message correctly it should be written clearly in a language that the receiver will understand. Mistakes in spelling can harm communication. Sometimes local jargon can disrupt good communication; it may be acceptable in a specialised trade or profession. Slang or local accents may be difficult for outsiders to understand. Nonverbal Barriers Facial expression, posture and eye movement all reveal our feelings and attitudes to the receiver. When there is conflict between a verbal and non verbal signal, it is the nonverbal signal that tends to be believed. A person may say that they are outgoing and confident but this might be contradicted by nervous body language. Poor Listening Good listening is often the most important part of communication. Listening give us a better understanding of the other persons point of view, maintains friendships and helps business collaboration. When not listening properly, we often miss an important point in a conversation. Problems with Perception Perception is how we make sense of ourselves and the world around us. We perceive the world through the senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. We also have some physiological based perceptions such as sensation of pain, heat, cold etc. We have mental perceptions such as thoughts, daydreams and fantasies. The brain registers these different stimuli and organises them into shapes and patterns that we can understand. Mistakes can arise if we think other people perceive things the same way that we do ourselves. Often they don’t and this is a common cause of communication failure. Attitudinal Barriers Stereotyping, prejudice and unwanted attribution are among the attitudinal barriers that can do the most damage to our ability to our ability to relate effectively to others. * Stereotyping: We stereotype other people when we assume they will behave in a certain way just because of their appearance, role or a particular social group. We may be surprised to find that conservatively dressed people have radical views or that the big person wearing a studded jacket and driving a Harley Davidson turns out to be as gentle as a lamb. Judging by appearance gives an incomplete and often distorted picture of what a person is really like. * Prejudice: Prejudice is an attitude of hostility based on faulty generalisations, such as stereotypes. It may be directed at individuals or groups. Prejudice can be damaging to communications if a person believes that another person is inferior, subversive, threatening, not fully part of the community and so on. If we consider another person less than ourselves, we are unlikely to value what they have to say. Prejudice is often a part of ignorance but maybe better education will improve this. * Attribution:Even when we avoid stereotyping, we still make the mistake of judging people on flimsy evidence. We should not listen to what other people say, this can sometimes be misleading. Having an accurate picture of people is vital for effective communication, but it is something that can only be built up slowly through time, insight and regular contact. The Principles of Effective Communication As a Communicator 1. Think carefully about your objectives before communicating. What do you want to achieve? Do you want to inform, persuade, advise or consult the receiver? What kind of response do you hope to get? When you have answered questions like these then you can think about the content of the message and how you define it. 2. Put yourself in the communicator’s shoes. The receiver’s perception may not be the same as yours. They may think differently or have different opinions. You may need to communicate with tact and sensitivity. 3. Choose the right medium or combination of media. Difficulties can arise if the wrong medium is used. If you try to describe a complicated process by speech alone the audience may not understand it. A combination of words and graphics may work better. 4. Organise your ideas and express them carefully. Take time to structure your ideas in a logical sequence. When choosing your words, take into consideration the receivers understanding and linguistic ability. Try to use words that the receiver will understand. Use language suitable to the communication taking place, informal language that may be used on the shop floor may not be suitable or appropriate for a business meeting. 5. Consider the context, breakdowns in communication often occur because the receiver is given information at the wrong time or place. Even important messages can be forgotten if the receiver is busy or preoccupied with something else. 6. Check for feedback, make sure your message has been received and understood. When speaking face to face look for signs of puzzlement in your listeners, be prepared to explain if necessary. Although the main responsibility for communicating a message rests with the sender, the receiver also has to listen and make sure they understand and relay the message to the right person. As a Receiver 1. Give the message your full attention. Many messages are misunderstood because the receiver is not concentrating, they are daydreaming, or there are too many distractions. 2. Interpret the message correctly. This requires effort and proper listening, if you are unsure of what is said; ask for it to be repeated. Check the meaning of unfamiliar words or references. In spoken communication listen actively and with empathy. Be alert for nuances that may subtly alter the meaning of the message. 3. Keep an open mind, you should not allow dislike of the communicator, or disagreement with their beliefs to influence your judgement. Make an objective assessment of the message no matter what your relationship with the sender. 4. Record information you are likely to forget. You should write down any information you are likely to forget such as, telephone numbers, names, dates etc. The information should be recorded properly in a secure place, not on a scrap of paper that can get lost among other papers on a busy desk. 5. Respond appropriately to the communicator by providing feedback, following up enquiries or whatever action is necessary. How to cite Theory of Communication, Essay examples

All the Pretty Horses free essay sample

All the Pretty Horses, the setting is used to represent the main characters transformation over time from one terrain to another. The limitedness of the Texan terrain scattered with barbed wire restrictions identifies the restlessness that motivates John Grady’s brevity in the region at the beginning of the novel. Meanwhile, the Mexican wilderness that John Grady Cole’s sets out for comes to epitomize how the vast territory of fenceless space shapes his experiences as they outline his true character. The result is recognition of the parallel between open terrain and his character, each one exemplifying one another and in the end explains the enlightenment he struggles for. Right out of the gate McCarthy shines light on the theme of personal constraint contingent on the landscape. John Grady is introduced in the beginning of the novel on his ranch in Texas preparing for his grandfather’s funeral. Right away the reader is informed of his feelings of being trapped and contained. The opening sentence of the novel offers intuition into this: â€Å"The candleflame and the image of the candleflame caught in the pierglass twisted and righted when he entered the hall and again when he shut the door† (McCarthy 3). The symbolism here is that of a character whose energy and aspirations for western lifestyle are being confined to a location that is changing and slowly vanishing. He therefore remains â€Å"caught,† with limited opportunity to participate in the way of life he hopes for. This fact is ultimately disheartening, particularly for a character that is symbolized as a flame that burns with exuberance. However, at the same time he struggles, â€Å"twist[ing] and right[ing]† himself to be free to chase his ambitions. John Grady’s contempt and restlessness stem from the hardships of his family. The Cole family made their name in cattle ranching for almost a century, but is now facing a financial crisis due to an increase of industrialization. The problem is made even more difficult with the death of John Grady’s grandfather and the waning health of his father, who seems to suffer from emphysema. Grady’s mother at the same time pursues life as an actress and holds no affections for the ranch she inherits and plans to sell the unprofitable plot. Grady consults a Franklin a lawyer who explains to a befuddled John Grady, â€Å"If it was a payin proposition that’d be one thing. But it aint† (McCarthy 17). His mothers’ indifference to the welfare of the family ranch certainly disappointments him, however he too soon chooses to forsake the place he has called home for sixteen years. Even though John Grady is most content in a rural setting and on the family ranch, it opens his eyes to the mortality of the place; the death of his grandfather corresponds with the subsequent death of his agrarian way of life. The ranching lifestyle and the attractions it had were creeping toward a mechanized extinction. This threat is most clearly grasped by John Grady when he steps outside and watches a train pass: â€Å"It came boring out of the east like some ribald satellite of the coming sun howling and bellowing in the distance and the long light of the headlamp running through the tangled mesquite brakes and creating out of the night the endless fenceline down the dead straight right of way and sucking it back again wire and post mile on mile into the darkness† (McCarthy 4). The train symbolizes something tremendously modern invading his home, from the more populated and developed east. McCarthy portrays the train as an unstoppable foreign force imposing its self on an old way of life. The event cements the death of the place for John Grady. He concludes that trying to gain possession of the ranch and confronting the juggernaut of modernism is beyond his abilities and he stands no chance. John Grady and Rawlins decision to explore the untamed expanse to south of their birthplace brings a succession of experiences that transform John Grady and forms a recognizable coming of age tale. The core of this coming of age narrative moves along and mirrors the advancement of setting. When John Grady and his friend Jimmy Rawlins first depart for Mexico they ride an idyllic stretch in which they encounter no problems or violence. They partake on this romantic journey to Mexico flawlessly, which conforms exactly to their expectations. â€Å"They rode out on the round dais of the earth . . . which carried their figures and bore them up into the swarming stars so that they rode not under but among them . . . ike young thieves in a glowing orchard, loosely jacketed against the cold and ten thousand worlds for the choosing† (McCarthy 30). Their aim is to act like the men who fill their idealized imaginings, men not of leisure but of serious purpose, perseverance, and models of healthy masculinity with the world at their fingertips. Little did they know the Mexican landscape they trekked across would become unforgiving and gradually more demanding. These changes can be associated as learning experiences typically linked to a coming of age story. A storm begins to build up that literally and iguratively rains on their idyllic beginning and is a prelude for what is to come. That night John Grady and Rawlins become heavily intoxicated for what seemed like their first time, their subsequent sickness is described against a significantly in a much less ideal place. â€Å"By dark the storm had slacked and the rain had almost ceased. They pulled the wet saddles off the horses and hobbled them and walked off in separate directions†¦clutching their knees vomiting. In the gray twilight those retchings seemed to echo like the calls of some rude provisional species loosed upon that waste† (McCarthy 71). The once placid, tranquil backdrop that had once given the boys limitless options was now a â€Å"waste† occupied by a â€Å"rude provisional species. † The deterioration of the landscape from uncompromising to contemptuous is noted and the theme that the setting is independent, but that it is a key element affecting the protagonist’s experiences. After finding work for a Mexican ranch hand the boys briefly feel stable and out of a state of transiency. However, after some time passes Mexican guards whisk the boys away after they are being charged with having ties to a murder committed by their old riding buddy Jimmy Blevins. After a few days at Ecantada they are put on a truck over to Saltillo Prison. Upon their arrival they are greeted with hostility from the inmates and forced to live in vastly unfavorable conditions. â€Å"They slept in iron bunks chained to the walls on thin trocheros or mattress pads that were greasy, vile, infested. In the morning they climbed down the four flights of steel ladders into the yard and stood among the prisoners for the morning list† (McCarthy 182). Once again the setting defines the peril that has fallen upon them down an ever steeper slope. he shared sites at which the renderings of the landscape occur. Among the three of the aforementioned examples, the one that displays positive emotion takes place in a calm, tranquil arena; when John Grady and Rawlins set off on their odyssey into the vast southern aridness, their morale is high, which can be directly traced to the imagery used to describe their surroundings. With no immediate experiences with the severe re alities of a country and culture so different from their own, they boys see no reason not to continue and pursue their dreams. In contrast, the boys’ first encounter with hardship comes at a time of great inebriation. Vomiting along the road and hearing the painful heaves of their disillusionment echo in the mountains. Similarly, their plight in the Saltillo presents a rude awakening forcing them to fight to stay alive daily. In the end, John Grady makes amends with the idea that initially drove him out of Texas in the first place. What was once an opportunity for adventure has now become painful, and ironically his restlessness for home that balances his initial restlessness for escape. By the time he has commenced his final ride, from Encantada to Texas, John Grady is identified only by a grim weariness that is dutifully mirrored by the landscape: â€Å"There was just the stillness and the silence and the sound of the horses breathing and the sound of their hooves clopping in the dark† (McCarthy 286). The notion of the heroic trek has been stripped of its enchantments, its hard realities laid bare, and John Grady’s environment has traced ably and faithfully the trajectory of his disillusionment. Lying riverside with the journey still young, the boys assess a map as their horses graze. It is an oilcompany roadmap, inconveniently specific and untuned to their needs, yet neither of them is disturbed. To the south of the Rio Grande lies only an expanse of uncharted white, malleable and untested, a challenge in the pure fact of its virgin blankness. At novel’s end, they might perceive the map as irrelevant, bounded and square—hardly representative of the Earth and its infinite curve on which any fixed cardinal direction becomes its opposite. But here, cavalierly â€Å"stretched out in the shade of a stand of blackwillow,† it espouses only one truth.

History of Chess free essay sample

The precursors of chess originated in India during the Gupta Empire,[2][3][4][5] where its early form in the 6th century was known as chatura? ga, which translates as four divisions (of the military): infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry, represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. [6] Chess was introduced to Persia from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility. 7] In Sassanid Persia around 600 the name became chatrang, which subsequently evolved to shatranj, due to Arab Muslim’s lack of ch and ng native sounds,[8] and the rules were developed further. Players started calling Shah! (Persian for King! ) when attacking the opponents king, and Shah Mat! (Persian for the king is helpless – see checkmate) when the king was attacked and could not escape from attack. These exclamations persisted in chess as it traveled to other lands. The game was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia, with the pieces largely keeping their Persian names. We will write a custom essay sample on History of Chess or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Moors of North Africa rendered Persian shatranj as sha? erej, which gave rise to the Spanish acedrex, axedrez and ajedrez; in Portuguese it became xadrez, and in Greek zatrikion, but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian shah (king). Thus, the game came to be called ludus scacchorum or scacc(h)i in Latin, scacchi in Italian, escacs in Catalan, echecs in French (Old French eschecs); schaken in Dutch, Schach in German, szachy in Polish, sahs in Latvian, skak in Danish, sjakk in Norwegian, schack in Swedish, sakki in Finnish, sah in South Slavic languages, sakk in Hungarian and sah in Romanian; there are two theories about why this change happened: 1. From the exclamation check or checkmate as it was pronounced in various languages. 2. From the first chessmen known of in Western Europe (except Iberia and Greece) being ornamental chess kings brought in as curios by Muslim traders. The Mongols call the game shatar, and in Ethiopia it is called senterej, both evidently derived from shatranj. Chess spread directly from the Middle East to Russia, where chess became known as Ã'ˆÐ °Ã'…Ð ¼Ã °Ã'‚Ã'‹ (shakhmaty, treated as a plural). The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9th century. By the year 1000 it had spread throughout Europe

Free Essays on Feminism

FEMINIST MOVEMENT FROM ITS ORIGINS TO THE PRESENT IN USA Women traditionally had been regarded as inferior to men physically and intellectually. Both law and theology had ordered their subjection. Women could not possess property in their own names, engage in business, or control the disposal of their children. Historically they have been considered not only intellectually inferior to men but also a major source of temptation and evil. In Greek mythology, for example, it was a woman, Pandora, who opened the forbidden box and brought plagues and unhappiness to mankind. Early Roman law described women as children, forever inferior to men. Early Christian theology perpetuated these views. St. Jerome, a 4th-century Latin father of the Christian church, said: "Woman is the gate of the devil, the path of wickedness, the sting of the serpent, in a word a perilous object." But throughout centuries women began to understand that they were not inferior. From this moment they began to seek their equality in the name of Feminism. Feminism is a movement for the political, social, and educational equality of women with men; the movement has occurred mainly in Europe and the United States. It has its roots in the humanism of the 18th century and in the Industrial Revolution. We first see the Feminist Movement in French Revolution with Olympe de Gouges’ writings. In Europe there’re 2 important feminist writers that wrote classics in Feminist Literature. First one is English writer Virginia Woolf with her famous work ‘A Room of One’s Own’. The second writer is French Simone de Beauvoir with her work ‘Le Deuxieme Sexe’. Feminist issues range from access to employment, education, child care, contraception, and abortion, to equality in the workplace, changing family roles, redress for sexual harassment in the workplace, and the need for equal political representation. The history of American feminism - the self-conscious desire to achie... Free Essays on Feminism Free Essays on Feminism FEMINISM The woman’s position wasn’t always the same across the different cultures of the world. Either it was bad or good there was always something different. Some scientists believe that the first type of human society was the matriarchy. Women had more and greater rights than men. However, as time passed by the two categories of human sexes began wanting to command respect to each other. The result of this â€Å"battle† was that men managed finally to make women obey them. Undoubtedly, women made great efforts in order to overcome the disadvantages of the situation that they ended up facing, and in a way, they succeeded. Women who couldn’t stand this oppression any more decided to demand their rights by creating a movement called Feminism. Feminism can be considered as a philosophical and sociological theory, which supports that the two sexes are equal not only in a social and economical level but in an urban and political level as well. However, even though by this movement women managed many things, in none of the countries the roots of the woman’s eternal inferiority haven’t yet obliterated, we can still see sometimes that new types of super session and imbalances make their appearance. Women are no longer expected to stay at home, keep the house, take care of children, wait patiently their husband to return and bring some money. Unlike they work hard by leading two lives. In the morning we see many women going to their office, and then in the afternoon running in order to be at home early to prepare the food for the children and the husband. But neither in the workplace, nor in the house they are equal patterns with men. In the 1960’s and 1970’s, a number of factors contributed to the resurgence of Feminism. Young women who were active in this movement gained experience in the politics of protest, but found that movement leaders often viewed women’s issues as trivial and relegated them to gender- stereotype... Free Essays on Feminism FEMINIST MOVEMENT FROM ITS ORIGINS TO THE PRESENT IN USA Women traditionally had been regarded as inferior to men physically and intellectually. Both law and theology had ordered their subjection. Women could not possess property in their own names, engage in business, or control the disposal of their children. Historically they have been considered not only intellectually inferior to men but also a major source of temptation and evil. In Greek mythology, for example, it was a woman, Pandora, who opened the forbidden box and brought plagues and unhappiness to mankind. Early Roman law described women as children, forever inferior to men. Early Christian theology perpetuated these views. St. Jerome, a 4th-century Latin father of the Christian church, said: "Woman is the gate of the devil, the path of wickedness, the sting of the serpent, in a word a perilous object." But throughout centuries women began to understand that they were not inferior. From this moment they began to seek their equality in the name of Feminism. Feminism is a movement for the political, social, and educational equality of women with men; the movement has occurred mainly in Europe and the United States. It has its roots in the humanism of the 18th century and in the Industrial Revolution. We first see the Feminist Movement in French Revolution with Olympe de Gouges’ writings. In Europe there’re 2 important feminist writers that wrote classics in Feminist Literature. First one is English writer Virginia Woolf with her famous work ‘A Room of One’s Own’. The second writer is French Simone de Beauvoir with her work ‘Le Deuxieme Sexe’. Feminist issues range from access to employment, education, child care, contraception, and abortion, to equality in the workplace, changing family roles, redress for sexual harassment in the workplace, and the need for equal political representation. The history of American feminism - the self-conscious desire to achie...

New Test Development Project Risk Monitoring and Control Assignment

New Test Development Project Risk Monitoring and Control - Assignment Example Basically, the project monitoring and evaluation in this project management are meant to provide objective and reliable up to date information about the progress of the project and as such helps eliminate unnecessary risks. Four basic indicator systems will be used in the project monitoring and control which includes; Schedule Performance Monitoring, Program Metrics, Technical Performance Measurement (TPM) and Earned Value (EV) (Kerzner, 2006). An in-depth monitoring and control of scheduled risks will be conducted to gauge the extent of the damages caused by such risks if any will be undertaken during the project implementation. After 30days, the project management staff will conduct a scheduled performance monitoring indicator to establish whether the time allowed for a risk that may occur as a result of the delay caused by the NATA in granting accreditation of the assays was within the acceptable limits. This process will be done to ensure that the overall implementation period of the project is not compromised by risks caused by NATA. The project monitoring and control tool will also be used to check the effectiveness of the rejection of the risk to proceed to offer service without NATA accreditation. The process will find out if adopting the risk would have dented the image of a project as earlier been presumed. There are other risks such as technical risks that have been identified as possible causes of delays in the implementation of this project. However, program metrics and earned value (EV) are some of the indicator approaches that will be used to monitor and control the adopted response strategies. The project has adopted risks such as the failure of assay design, challenged validation report by NATA assessor and service redundancy. Likewise, during the implementation of the project risk monitoring will be done against the above-named risks to estimate the effectiveness of the decision of adopting them.  

Financial Ratio for Krispy Kreme and BCG Matrix for McDonald's Assignment

Financial Ratio for Krispy Kreme and BCG Matrix for McDonald's - Assignment Example The measurement considers all assets including inventory, accounts receivable, and fixed assets. The lower the ratio, the more slowly the firm’s sales are. Comparing the number to past years company data is important in order to see trends that have developed. In addition, comparing it to the industry standard is useful in order to see how the company compares to its prime competitors. If a problem exists with a low ratio, it could be possible that one or more of the firm’s asset categories have problems that need addressing. (Peavler, pp 1-2). Krispy Kreme’s total assets turnover ratio of 1.9 times is better than its prime competitors of McDonalds and Starbucks. McDonald's has a current total assets turnover of .80 times, while Starbucks Corporation has a current total assets turnover of 1.7 times. (ADVFN, PLC) Hence, this is listed as an overall strength or competitive advantage for Krispy Kreme. The second ratio examined is Krispy Kreme’s debt to equity ratio. The ratio is calculated as Total liabilities / Stockholder’s Equity. A high debt to equity ratio would indicate that the company has financed its growth through debt. The main issues would be if the company overextended itself and took on too much debt, or if it has to shoulder a large amount of interest due to the existing debt. High or increasing debt ratios in relation to equity can be dangerous since it would indicate that the company is being financed by creditors instead of internal cash flows. (www.enterpernuer.com website). Krispy Kreme’s debt to equity ratio of 1.05 is higher than its prime competitors. McDonalds Corporation has a .81 ratio, while Starbucks has a low .18 ratio. (ADVFN, PLC). Overall, 1.05 of Krispy Kreme is not an evident weakness, since using some leverage is not considered a clear weakness. The third ratio examined is the return on equity ratio. It is calculated as follows: Net income / Common Equity. This ratio is especially useful for shareholders who are interested in knowing what profits earned by the company can be made available to pay dividends.     

Critical accounting theory

Critical accounting theory Introduction There are several reasons there is no one universally accepted theory of accounting. The reasons are of two sorts. The first is philosophical. The second is practical. This essay discusses each of these. It then provides examples from accounting theory. Philosophical reasons The statement There is no universally accepted accounting theory is true by definition. Scientific understanding of the term theory denies that any theory can be universally accepted. According to Popper (e.g., 2002a, 2002b), theories are conjectures that are put to the test. If they are refuted by the test, they are either rejected or refined. If they are not refuted, they remain theories (not facts). They are then put to further tests, and are further refined. In order for this to proceed, there must exist rival theories. In this way, theories compete in a process of Darwinian selection. The theories never get to the truth, but they get progressively closer. This is the first reason there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. If there were a universally accepted theory of accounting, it wouldnt be a theory. It would be something else. Notice that, according to Popper, no theory ever arrives at certain knowledge. The best any theory can do is curtail ignorance. Moreover, if scientists were to discover a true theory, there would be no way they could know it was true, so there would still be competing theories. This last point needs elaboration. GÃ ¶dels incompleteness theorems (see, e.g., Hofstadter, 1979) demonstrate that, in any system of logic rich enough to contain formal arithmetic there exists an infinite number of statements that are true but that are impossible, in principle, for the system to know to be true. This means, in practical terms, that in any complex system-for example, an economic system-there exist solutions to problems that are known by the system, but are not known by any individual within it. This is appreciated by leading economists (e.g., Hayek, 1979). Further, given that there exist usually infinitely more wrong solutions to problems than correct solutions to problems, any attempt to solve such problems by diktat is infinitely more likely to lead to failure than to success. As regards economics, this led Hayek (1944) to his espousal of the free market. As regards theory in science, it means that any attempt to impose a single theory on anything is likely to lead to a seriously wrong theory. This is another reason for believing there can be no universally accepted theory of accounting. Any universally accepted theory could only be universally accepted if it were imposed by diktat, and, if it were imposed by diktat, it would of necessity most likely be wrong. Therefore it would give rise to a rival theory. Related to this, Feyerabend (1996) argues that there is no such thing as a single scientific method, and that any attempt to impose one is counter-productive. Feyerabends philosophy of science is summarised as anything goes. This, provides another reason for there being no single theory of accounting. If there can be no universally accepted method, there can be no universally accepted theory. There are two popular views of science that are in conflict with Poppers perspective: positivism and postmodernism. Positivism is the philosophy, associated with Ayer (1946) that says that the only meaningful statements are those that are true by logic and those that may be verified by observation. This is the verification principle. The first problem with the verification principle is that it is neither a truth of logic nor an empirically verifiable fact, therefore by its own terms it is meaningless. The second problem is that in implies science proceeds inductively. But inductive logic (drawing general conclusions from specific instances) is flawed: a million observations of white swans, for example, does not demonstrate that all swans are white (indeed, they arent: some swans are black). Postmodernism is the philosophy that reality is socially constructed. So what is real to one person may be unreal to another. At a trivial level, this is true, for different people see the same things in different ways. It is also true that, historically, science progressed in some instances by changes in world view, or paradigm (Kuhn, 1996). However, this is a question more of the sociology of science, not of ontology. And taken literally postmodernism is absurd. It leads to the conclusion that there is no such thing as reality. The prevalence of competing philosophies of science-Popperism, positivism, and postmodernism-provides another reason for there being no universally accepted theory of accounting. There is no universally accepted view of what constitutes reality. Thus one should expect there to be different theories of accounting, each with its cadre of supporters. Practical reasons There are three purposes for any theory of accounting, and each makes different demands on the theory. The first is that accounting should provide the best information about a companys position. Such a theory is prescriptive, in that it suggests how best accountants should ply their trade. Such a viewpoint is said to be normative. A normative theory is one that states what is best practice. A theory of accounting may also seek to describe what accountants do. Any science must include accurate descriptions. It is logically possible for a researcher to adhere to a descriptive theory yet bemoan the fact that accountants dont follow what the researcher considers the correct (i.e., normative) practice. There is another aspect to descriptive theories. Until the advent of cheap computers, there was no way that researchers could analyse vast collections of data. Moreover, very often the data were unavailable (Gaffikin), 2008). Computers have changed this. This is another reason for believing there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. A descriptive theory is only as good as the data fed into it. But it is impossible to analyse all the data, only different blocks of data. Different blocks may give rise to different descriptions. In describing how accountants behave, researchers must gather evidence. But what evidence? And how should researchers gather it? Positivists tend to use quantitative data. These are data that are, supposedly objective, and may be expressed numerically and manipulated statistically. Company sales figures are an example. Postmodernists tend to use qualitative data. These are data that make no claim to objectivity and are difficult to express numerically. The findings of unstructured interviews-emotions, impressions, and so on-are examples of qualitative data. Because of this, even when presented with the same evidence, different researchers may reach different conclusions. This is another reason there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. A theory of accounting can seek to explain. Such theories are scientific in the Popperian sense, for they may be refuted. It is logically possible for a researcher to believe that Theory 1 is the best explanatory theory, Theory 2 is the best descriptive theory, and Theory 3 is the best normative theory. Thus again there are many theories of accounting. Any researcher may subscribe to three different theories, and do so without being inconsistent. In practice, the distinction between normative, descriptive, and explanatory theories is blurred. Any theory of one type may have features of the others. Example theories This section considers discusses two example theories. Theory 1: Positive accounting theory There are several problems with normative theory. One concerns what to enter. Consider assets. An accountant does not know how much a companys assets are worth. So the accountant uses one of several indicators (historical cost, for instance). The accountant must also estimate how much assets depreciate. Accountants use algorithms to calculate depreciation-typically, straight line depreciation such that assets become worthless after three years. Such algorithms are only broadly accurate. Such considerations led Watts and Zimmerman (1978) to develop positive accountancy theory. The theory is in part descriptive, in that it states what real-world accountants do, and in part explanatory, in that it purports to explain why accountants behave in the way they do. The theory says, in effect, that company accounts do not accord with reality. Instead, they accord with what powerful interests (stakeholders, shareholders, managers) want others to see as reality. The theory makes two assumptions: Homo economicus. This states three things. First, people are entirely rational. Second, people act only out of self-interest. Third, people act only to maximise their wealth. The efficient market hypothesis (EMH). This states that, left to its own devices (i.e., if unregulated), the market delivers an optimum price for any good or service. The EMH states that prices accord with all available information. The reason positive accounting theory makes these assumptions is that, without them, it is difficult to make quantifiable predictions, but with them it is relatively easy. Thus, for example, with them one can predict companies in one particular environment will prefer a different form of accounting from companies in another type of environment. Thus, for example, Watts and Zimmerman (1978) predict that firms whose earnings are increased by general price level adjusted accounting (GPLA) will oppose GPLA, but firms whose earnings are decreased by GPLA will favour it. But the notion of H. economicus is problematic-some people are unintelligent, some are altruistic, and so on (Lunn, cited in Clark, 2008), The EMH is also contentious. Some economists accept it, others dont. The EMH is also vague. If the market is efficient, the EMH doesnt say how long it takes to reach a decision Also, if the EMH were true, arbitrage would be impossible. The best one can say about the assumptions is that they provide an approximation of reality. How good an approximation it is, nobody knows. This is another reason there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. Some people think the assumptions provide a good approximation; some people think they provide a bad one. Fama and French (2004) state that markets can be inefficient and investors can be ill-informed and irrational, Just as owners, governments, and workers have vested interests, so have Watts and Zimmerman. In their case, they are interested in promoting positive accounting theory. So, in this regard, the theory has a normative aspect. It concerns how accountancy researchers should practice their trade. If all researchers follow Watts and Zimmermans diktats, Watts and Zimmerman will become rich. Naturally, all accountancy researchers want to be in Watts and Zimmermans position, but the only way for them to do so is to develop a rival theory. This is another reason there is no universally accepted accountancy theory. Theory 2. Critical accounting theory Critical accounting theory isnt really a theory. Its more a style of criticism. It aims, not only to alter accounting practice, but to change society (Gaffikin, 2008). It is political. Thus, for example, Laughlin (cited in Davis, 2008) states: A critical understanding of the role of accounting processes and practices and the accounting profession in the functioning of society and organisations with an intention to use that understanding to engage (where appropriate) in changing these processes, practices and the profession. In this, critical accounting theory is postmodernist. Postmodernists point to the numerous flaws in positive accountancy theory. They highlight the weaknesses in the concepts of H. economicus and the EMH. They point out that Watts and Zimmerman use rhetorical devices to put the views across. They argue that the methodology and measuring instruments of positivist theories are crude, and so on. Occasionally, they make (or repeat) good points (e.g., the EMH is incorrect) (e.g., Mouck, 1992). As indicated, postmodernists deny the existence of objective reality. In doing so, they deny the possibility of determining the truth, or worth, of any statement. Thus they deny the truth, or worth, of postmodernism. This is the problem with postmodernism. If reality is socially constructed, then there cannot be a universally accepted theory, for socially constructed reality differs according to who is doing the constructing. A true theory to one postmodernist is a false theory to all others. That is why there is no universally accepted theory of accounting. References Ayer, A.J. (1946). Language, truth and logic. (2nd ed.). London: Gollancz. Clark, T. (2008, November 1). Market madness. The Guardian. Davis, D. (2008). Critical accounting theory. Lecture 9. Lecture notes. Bangor Business School. Feyerabend, P. (1996). Against method: Outline of an anarchistic theory of knowledge. San Francisco, CA: Analytical Psychology Club of San Francisco, Fama, E.F. and French, A.R. (2004). The CAPM: Theory and Evidence. On line: http://www.econ.sdu.edu.cn/jrtzx/uploadfile/pdf/Assetpricing/04.pdf Gaffikin, M. (2008). Accounting theory: Research, regulation and accounting practice. French Forest, Australia: Pearson Education. Hayek, F. A. (1979). Unemployment and monetary policy. San Francisco: Cato Institute. Hayek, F. A. (1944). The road to serfdom. London: George Routledge Hofstadter, D. (1979). G?del, Esther, Bach: An eternal golden braid. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mouck, T. (1992). The rhetoric of science and the rhetoric of revolt in the story of positive accounting theory. Accounting Auditing, and Accountability, 5 (4): 35-56. Popper, K. (2002a). Unended quest. An intellectual biography. London: Routledge. Popper, K. (2002b). Conjectures and refutations. London: Routledge. Watts, R.L. And Zimmerman, J.L. (1978). Towards a positive theory of the determination of accounting standards. Accounting Review, 53: 112-132.

Price Mechanism

The market system is the mechanism for allocating scarce resources and thereby encouraging a positive investment climate. The problem of scarcity is common in all economic structures. The economic system of a particular country is the way in which its people, businesses and government make choices. Demand is the amount of a product consumers are willing and able to purchase at any given time. However, supply is the amount of a product that is available at any given time. The following diagram shows the relationship that demand has with supply:The above diagram shows that where the demand and supply intersects, indicates the quantity which suppliers wish to market equals the quantity which buyers are willing to take. There are many factors that have determined the general increase in global food prices over the last four years. One factor is in late 2006 the unseasonable droughts in many grain-producing countries. The top three wheat producers in the world are, China, India, and the U nited States respectively. The consequences of drought include diminished crop growth, and the ability to rare livestock.Also, it causes erosion, which further affects plantations and soil consistency. Without water there can be no irrigation. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil for assisting of the proper, healthy growth of crops. Wildfires are also caused by droughts because of the lack of moisture in the air; they consume all agriculture once formed. Biofuels, a fuel substitute that is derived not from fossil fuels but from biological material maybe another cause of rising food prices. Bio fuels are commonly used in place of gas to power vehicles, to heat houses and even to cook on your stove.The factor that affects the price of crops here is that Biofuels use crops high in sugar and starch, then fermentation of these crops causes the it to produce ethanol. Ethanol is the substance, which is used for power. So as our world is becoming more eco friendly an d aware, our food prices will rise. Oil prices over the last four years have been steadily rising, causing food transport and other agriculture related machinery and treatments to rise also. From the mid 1980s to September 2003, the inflation-adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX (New York Mercantile Exchange) was on average under US$25/barrel.Then in 2003 it finally rose to US$30/barrel and gradually went up to US$60/barrel in 2005, and skyrocketed to US$147/barrel in 2008. These drastic increases in oil prices have taken their toll on food prices over the past four years. Wheat and grain are said to be relatively inelastic, meaning there is not much range for substituting. So where there is a large change in price there is little or no change in the quantity demanded of that particular good. The elasticity of a product can be measured by the following formula: PED = % change in Quantity Demanded of product change in price of that product World population growth is the l atest in factors to affect food prices. The world population has grown from 1. 6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 6. 6 billion today. The increase in population size has mainly been pointed to the developed countries where food prices are subsidized. In these countries, the government subsidize crops, and absorb the extra cost of food so the cost does not affect the consumer. So in reality, the developing and the third world countries are the only ones to suffer from our current food shortage.

Human resource management Essay

To establish the role of Performance Management in controlling and developing employees it is imperative to understand the definition of Performance Management and its evolution. Evolution Performance Management is relatively a new concept, which has developed tremendously since the last two decades. As per CIPD (2009) Performance Management has been around in the language of HR and people management since the 1980’s. The above point is also mentioned by Williams R, (1998) stating that Performance Management came into prominence in the late 1980s/ early  1990s. â€Å"The term performance management was first used in the 1970’s but it did not become a recognised process until the latter half of 1980s† (Armstrong, 2009). Thorpe, (2004) states that ‘Performance management as an identifiable subject for academic study and research arguably began in the mid-1990’s’ Performance Management has evolved over the years from performance appraisal systems into a more holistic approach. As per Bach, (2005) â€Å"With the increased recognition of the problems that permeate many company appraisal schemes, there has been a shift of emphasis from performance appraisal to performance management† (p290). â€Å"The reality of contemporary performance management practice is probably best seen as ‘a logical progression in the history of the development of appraisal systems’† (Lundy and Cowling, 1996, p307). Definitions ‘The essence of Performance management is establishing a framework in which performance by human resources can be directed, monitored, motivated and refined; and the links in the cycle can be audited’ (Clark, 2005) As per Armstrong and Barron, (2009) Performance management is ‘A process which contributes to the effective management of individuals and teams in order to achieve high levels of organisational performance’ (cited in CIPD 2012). ‘Performance management encompasses activities such as joint goal-setting, continuous progress review and frequent communication, feedback and coaching for improved performance, implementation of employee-development programs and rewarding achievements. It can be regarded as a systematic process by which the overall performance of an organisation can be improved by improving the performance of individuals within a team framework’ (Drum, 2005) ‘Performance management is the process of creating a work environment in which people can perform to the best of their abilities. It is a whole work system that begins when a job is defined as needed and expectations are clearly communicated to the employee’ (Den Hartlog et al. , 2004) The role of Performance Management in both controlling and developing employees: Beamon, 1999, argues that, ‘Despite the increasing focus on collaboration between enterprises from one side, existing studies in the area of performance management still narrowly look at the single enterprise and its â€Å"within-enterprise† process and people ‘(cited in Busi and Bititci, 2006). The literature review brings up some interesting common themes and issues that run through the existing literature, research and definitions of performance management. These common themes will focus on features of performance management and its application in an organisation. Performance Management versus Performance Appraisal Although Performance Management evolved from performance appraisals few decades ago, most literature still intensely focuses on performance appraisals when addressing performance management. CIPD (2012) ‘While performance appraisal is an important part of performance management, in itself it is not performance management: rather, it is one of the range of tools that can be used to manage performance. However, it is a common mistake to assume that if organizations implement performance appraisals, they have performance management. Performance management is a holistic process bringing together many activities that collectively contribute to the effective management of individuals and teams in order to achieve high levels of organizational performance. The process is strategic, in that it is about broader issues and long-term goals, and integrated in that it links various aspects of the business, people management, individuals and teams. Performance appraisal on the other hand is operational, short- to medium-term and concerned only with individual employees and their performance and development. While it is one of the tools of performance management, and the data produced can feed into other elements of performance management, appraisal by itself does not constitute performance management’. Bach (2009) also states the difference between performance management and performance appraisal, ‘Advocates of performance management claim that its value resides in the cycle of integrated activities, which ensure that a systematic link is established between the contribution of each employee and the overall performance of the organisation. This strategic approach contrasts with the free standing nature of performance appraisals, in which the outcomes of each individual appraisal are rarely linked to overall corporate objectives’ (p291). However, CIPD (2005) Survey report demonstrates that, the practice of performance management still largely revolves around objective setting and appraisal. The confusion and overlapping in organizations between performance appraisals and performance management is evident form the above literature and surveys, however it still acts as a good tool for managers to control and develop employees. Performance management is a cycle, an on-going process Performance management is a cycle and for it to deliver desired results, it needs to be an on-going process. Conventionally, Performance management is portrayed as a three-stage cycle involving performance planning, monitoring and review (Armstrong and baron, 2005) The Performance management cycle CIPD (2012) also states ‘Performance management is a process, not an event, it operates as a continuous cycle’. Clark (2005) in his definition of Performance management also refers performance management as a cycle ‘The essence of Performance management is establishing a framework in which performance by human resources can be directed, monitored, motivated and refined; and the links in the cycle can be audited’. CIPD Discussion paper (2009) mentions that using a survey and a number of practice-based case studies, this work concluded that performance management was most likely to be viewed as a continuous process rather than an annual activity. Porter et al (2012) states that, ‘Performance management is not an independent activity; it is in fact a series of processes supporting different elements of effective people management. Performance therefore needs to be placed very firmly in a management context’ (p 140).

Hawaiian Stereotypes - 1259 Words

The Hawaiian culture is both diverse and unique, with its own language, traditions, and beliefs. Despite these multi-faceted characteristics, certain broad stereotypes about the culture persist in the non-Hawaiian population. My paper will explore where race, prejudice and cultural stereotypes come from and how both Hawaiian and non-Hawaiian cultures reinforce these stereotypes. According to Dictionary.com a stereotype is something conforming to a fixed or general pattern, especially an often oversimplified or biased mental picture held to characterize the typical individual of a group (dictionary.com). The term â€Å"stereotype† originally referred to a stamp used in the printing industry to make multiple copies from one single block. The†¦show more content†¦I can remember while living in Hawaii many times when a burial ground or sacred site was destroyed or moved to make way for the development of a new highway or resort. Many of my relatives who are Native Hawaiians have told me stories of how cultural and historic sites, hundred in number, have been bulldozed to make way for hotel and golf course development. Many others have been turned into tourist attractions and are desecrated in their use and misuse. These include heiau (burial grounds) or ancient temples, house sites, fishing shrines, ceremonial platforms and agricultural sites. All of these acts take place at the expense and pain of Native Hawaiians who are struggling to survive. Here you have multimillion dollar revenue and none of that money is going to support and perpetuate the culture or recover of the language and heritage of Native Hawaiians. This reminds me of many stories we have covered during class of where cultures have been oppressed in order for other cultures to succeed. Most Hawaiians have witness that tourism, as a foreigner dominated enterprise, is the plague which an already oppressed people must endure with very few other economic options or alternatives in life. The plight of Native Hawaiians is only one example of the destructive impact tourism is having on indigenous people in communities around the world. All is not well inShow MoreRelatedTourism And Its Impact On Tourism1145 Words   |  5 PagesNative Hawaiians and is a huge human rights issue today. Most Hawaiians dislike tourism greatly due to the selfishness and greediness tou rists bring to their home country. The pastor at a small rural church on the island of Kauai, Reverend Kaleo Patterson, has witnessed and dealt with numerous Hawaiians who struggle with the issues of tourism. Numerous vacation resorts that attract tourists have taken over gravesites of Hawaiians that have passed away. 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